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text-white"><span>观点</span></p><h1 class="title article-title">阴谋论：与文学息息相关</h1><div class="content-date-wrapper"><div class="created-time"><span>28 April 2021</span></div></div></div><div class="main-node-content"><div class="content-narrow"><div class="media-wrapper"><div class="media-image field field--name-field-ref-image field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden field__item"><article class="media media--type-image media--view-mode-medium"><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <picture> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_desktop/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.webp?itok=Y67MXilT 1x" media="all and (min-width: 993px)" type="image/webp" width="610" height="317"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_tablet/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.webp?itok=q1uOHbQp 1x" media="all and (min-width: 576px) and (max-width: 992px)" type="image/webp" width="688" height="358"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_mobile/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.webp?itok=A8yjITAk 1x" media="all and (max-width: 575px)" type="image/webp" width="327" height="170"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_desktop/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.jpg?itok=Y67MXilT 1x" media="all and (min-width: 993px)" type="image/jpeg" width="610" height="317"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_tablet/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.jpg?itok=q1uOHbQp 1x" media="all and (min-width: 576px) and (max-width: 992px)" type="image/jpeg" width="688" height="358"/> <source srcset="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_mobile/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.jpg?itok=A8yjITAk 1x" media="all and (max-width: 575px)" type="image/jpeg" width="327" height="170"/> <img loading="eager" src="/sites/default/files/styles/paragraph_medium_desktop/article/courier/photos/cou_02_21_idea_knight_website_01.jpg?itok=Y67MXilT" width="610" height="317" alt=" "/> </picture></div> </article></div></div><div class="field field--name-field-paragraphs field--type-entity-reference-revisions field--label-hidden field__items"><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>长期以来，文学作品的情节都与阴谋论有着千丝万缕的联系，阴谋论本质就是一种想象行为。然而，作者解释说，这些虚构概念往往是打着“让我们理解周围世界”的幌子创造出来的，它们有时会对我们的生活产生真切影响，甚至造成悲剧性后果。</strong></p><p><strong>彼得·奈特（Peter Knight）</strong><br/><em>彼得·奈特是英国曼彻斯特大学美国研究教授，也是荷兰莱顿大学客座教授，其著有《阴谋文化》（2000年）和《肯尼迪遇刺》（2007年），并与迈克尔·巴特（Michael Butter）合编了《劳特利奇阴谋论手册》（2020年）。</em></p><p>从欧里庇得斯（Euripides）的《酒神的女信徒》到丹·布朗（Dan Brown）的《达芬奇密码》，文学一直对深奥的知识、秘密社团以及阴谋论情有独钟。从定义上来讲，一个好的阴谋是不着痕迹的，因此阴谋论便是一种充满想象力的猜测，猜想这幕后有一个秘密组织，狡猾地操纵一切。阴谋论创造的故事给原本随机的事件赋予意义，并将这些事件视为一个巨大阴谋的一部分。</p><p>虽然许多阴谋小说仅供大众娱乐，但它们对现实世界产生的影响有时令人大吃一惊。例如，2021年1月6日，华盛顿特区发生了示威者冲击国会大厦的事件，这一行为在某种程度上就是受到了《特纳日记》的影响。这部小说出版于1978年，故事中充斥着阴谋，虚构了一场推崇白人至上主义的灾难性起义。这部反政府小说也影响了蒂莫西·麦克维（Timothy McVeigh），他在1995年炸毁了俄克拉荷马城的联邦大楼，致使168人死亡。</p><p>造成悲剧的伪造文件</p><p>关于光明会的阴谋论可以追溯到18世纪90年代。对于这个故事，我们今天在互联网上看到的诸多离奇版本都是无形中从《光明会三部曲》（1975年）衍生出来的，这部反文化小说狂妄不羁，出自《花花公子》杂志的两位编辑之手，即罗伯特·谢伊（Robert Shea）和罗伯特·安东·威尔逊（Robert Anton Wilson）。当时有很多人不断给杂志社写信，信誓旦旦地讲述各种令人匪夷所思的阴谋论，谢伊和威尔逊对这些内容产生了兴趣，于是开始创作这部小说，小说的构思是建立在这样的前提下的：如果“所有这些疯子都是对的，让他们满腹牢骚的每一个阴谋都是真实存在的”，会发生什么。</p><p>人们会将捏造的文本信以为真，《锡安长老会议纪要》（下文简称《会议纪要》）便是最重要的例证之一。1903年，这份伪造的文件打着秘密会议记录的名号在俄罗斯问世，文件宣称犹太长老们密谋要统治世界。直至1921年，才得以证明它是伪造的。即便如此，纳粹仍然将其视为一项为“大屠杀”辩护的正当理由。</p><p>今天，这份捏造的文本仍然在许多国家流传，并成为多个当代阴谋论的基础，这些阴谋论常把矛头指向“精英”、“全球主义者”和“金融家”，而这些身份通常也是犹太人的代名词。研究表明，该文件的部分内容改编自19世纪的一部鲜为人知的德国小说《比亚里茨》，该小说出版于1868年，由德国反犹太主义作家赫尔曼·歌德赫（Hermann Goedsche）所著。其他内容则来自《马基雅维利与孟德斯鸠地狱里的对话》，这是莫里斯·乔利（Maurice Joly）于1864年出版的小册子，用以讽刺拿破仑三世（Napoleon III）的政权。通过抄袭，《会议纪要》呈现出一个虚构的阴谋，而这个阴谋又被当成事实，造成了悲剧性的后果。</p><p>邪恶计划和秘密社团</p><p>对读者来说，虚构的文本，包括《会议纪要》这样的伪造文本，比司空见惯的阴谋论形式（比如揭发报道、小册子、纪录片）更有优势，因为其可以戏剧化地虚构出人们在烟雾缭绕的房间里密谋筹划的场景。长期以来，虽然文学都在涉足阴谋和秘密社团，但直到19世纪，它们才成为戏剧的核心元素。</p><p>例如，哥特式和情节剧式的体裁就多以讲述骇人听闻的故事为特色，故事中，恶棍会秘密操纵无辜受害者，实施邪恶计划。19世纪，德国出现了秘密结社或秘密社团小说，而英国作家则对密谋反对政府的共济会、意大利和爱尔兰秘密社团既心驰神往，又避之不及。</p><p>大约20世纪初，随着侦探小说和惊悚小说的出现，阴谋小说才真正开始崭露头角。这些题材都基于一种怀疑，即在表面细节的混乱下深藏真相。</p><p>对英雄人物的认同</p><p>然而，阴谋小说并不仅仅是向我们展示阴谋的作用原理，它还常常鼓励读者认同某个独特的人物，其通常是一位单枪匹马、英勇无畏的侦探。侦探小说和阴谋惊悚小说实际上是两种故事，有着相反的发展轨迹。前者的叙事是侦探的发现之旅，引人入胜的故事推动情节迅速展开——从主角最初认识到其相信的一切都是谎言，发展到阴谋的最终揭露，并如愿恢复当前秩序。</p><p>在阴谋小说中，通常的情况则是，侦探发现的阴谋越多，虚构的情节就越丰富。这两种叙事结构之间的矛盾有助于解释为什么阴谋小说的发现之旅如此曲折漫长，因为我们总是发现，那些我们所认为的真相不过都是邪恶的阴谋者布下的虚假线索。阅读阴谋小说的主要乐趣就是想看到真相得以揭露，但同时又希望最好永远不要看到这一幕。</p><p>文学上对怀疑和阐释的关注源于19世纪的一些作家，如埃德加·爱伦·坡（Edgar Allen Poe）和亨利·詹姆斯（Henry James），他们成为20世纪现代主义写作的中流砥柱。然而，阴谋小说在二战后的美国文学中迎来了鼎盛时期。阴谋论是美国最杰出的一些战后作家关注的核心主题，这些作家包括威廉·S. 巴罗斯（William S. Burroughs）、唐·德里罗（Don DeLillo）、约瑟夫·海勒（Joseph Heller）、肯·凯西（Ken Kesey）和托马斯·品钦（Thomas Pynchon）。</p><p>“创造性偏执狂”</p><p>作家们反复制造这样的场景，在这些场景中，主人公（几乎总是白人）感到他的自由、身份和所在机构，甚至他的身体，都面临着遭到巨大而隐秘的力量控制的危险。为了探索“究竟发生了什么”，这些小说故意采用了品钦（Pynchon）所称的“创造性偏执狂”的形式，将阴谋论作为理解国家权力、法人团体资本主义和大众媒体时代非个人体系的一种方式。这个阴谋不再是外国渗透进来的显而易见的阴谋，而是一种来自内部的威胁，它更加含糊，也更为普遍。</p><p>在这种情况下，这类小说的大部分内容自然侧重于“我们如何知道我们自认为知道的事情”这个问题，也就不足为奇了。叙事已经发生了转变，从将情节戏剧化的阴谋论叙事，转变为思考此类情节可能存在的阴谋论叙事。这些比较新的小说，结局往往模棱两可，没有定论，因为代入侦探身份的读者永远不能判断线索是否只是在转移注意力。</p><p>如果说现代主义写作需要一种偏执的阅读形式，因为它鼓励读者发现隐藏的意义和隐藏的典故，那么后现代主义写作则需要所谓的“元偏执”，一种对激进怀疑问题的自我反思。正如菲利普·K. 迪克（Philip K. Dick）等科幻作家的阴谋小说或者《黑客帝国》等电影所表明的那样，我们认为是现实的东西，其本身可能是邪恶阴谋团体所设计的骗局。就像电视剧《X档案》中所说的，不要相信任何人。</p><p>后现代阴谋文学关注知识的不确定性，这与近几十年来文学和文化批评领域的主导模式一致，法国文学评论家保罗·里科尔（Paul Ricoeur）所说的“怀疑阐释学”更是强化了这种模式。批判的传统始于马克思（Marx）、尼采（Nietzsche）和弗洛伊德（Freud），他们试图揭示无形中支配人类行为和历史发展的经济、道德和心理力量。</p><p>所见非所实</p><p>该解释模式始于这样一种假设，即在欺骗性的表象之下隐藏着更深层次的现实，而批评家的任务就是要发现这一现实。同样，阴谋论也始于这样一种假设，即没有什么东西是表里一致的，也没有什么事情是偶然发生的，万事万物都息息相关。阴谋论往往涉及危险的错觉，而阴谋论的文学作品有时也将这些危害扩大化。</p><p>合理解释和偏执过度解释之间界限模糊，但在最好的情况下，阴谋小说对这种界限进行了创造性探索。它迫使读者思考自由意志的本质，特别是在日益复杂的全球经济中，让我们在两种世界之间难以抉择：一种是徒劳无功、完全随机的世界；另一种则是一切都已未雨绸缪，但处处是阴谋的世界。通过将读者代入侦探的身份，阴谋文学可以帮助我们理解阴谋思维的极大吸引力，同时深入思考阴谋问题，以这种方式去理解世界。</p><p> </p><p>扩展阅读:</p><p><a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000088084">《与时间妥协》，保罗·里考尔（Paul Ricoeur）著</a>，联合国教科文组织《信使》，1991年4月。</p><p> </p><p><a href="https://zh.unesco.org/courier/2020-3/zh.unesco.org/courier/subscribe">订阅</a>联合国教科文组织《信使》，阅读发人深省的时事文章，数字版免费。</p><p>在社交网络上关注联合国教科文组织《信使》：<a href="https://www.weibo.com/unesco">微博</a>、微信公众号“联合国教科文信使”、<a href="https://twitter.com/UNESCO_chinese">Twitter</a>、<a href="https://www.facebook.com/unescocourier/">Facebook</a>、<a href="https://www.instagram.com/unescocourier/?hl=en">Instagram</a>。</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>By Peter Knight </strong></p><p>Literature has long had a fascination with esoteric knowledge, secret societies and conspiracies – from Euripides’ <em>Bacchae</em> to Dan Brown’s <em>The Da Vinci Code</em>. A good conspiracy by definition leaves no traces, and so a conspiracy theory is an imaginative speculation about the existence of a secret group behind the scenes, cunningly manipulating events. Conspiracy theories create a narrative that promises to make sense of otherwise random events, seeing them as part of one vast, overarching plot.</p><p>While many conspiracy fictions merely provide entertainment, they can sometimes have a surprising effect on the real world. The storming of the Capitol in Washington DC on 6 January 2021, for example, was in part inspired by <em>The Turner Diaries</em>, a conspiracy-infused novel from 1978 that imagines an apocalyptic, white supremacist uprising. That anti-government novel also influenced Timothy McVeigh, who blew up the federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995, killing 168 people.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="forged-document-with-tragic-consequences" class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-title field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>Forged document with tragic consequences</h2></div><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Although conspiracy theories about the Illuminati date back to the 1790s, many of the most fantastical versions of this story circulating on the internet today are unwittingly derived from <em>The Illuminatus! Trilogy</em> (1975), a madcap, counter-cultural novel written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, two editors at <em>Playboy</em> magazine. Intrigued by the endless letters to the magazine asserting all manner of unbelievable conspiracy theories, Shea’s and Wilson’s starting premise for the novel was imagining what if “all these nuts are right, and every single conspiracy they complain about really exists”.</p><p>The most significant example of a fabricated conspiracy text being taken for real is the <em>Protocols of the Elders of Zion</em>. This forged document was first published in 1903 in Russia, and was presented as the record of a secret meeting of Jewish elders who are plotting world domination. By 1921, it was shown to be a forgery, but that did not stop it from becoming part of the Nazis’ justification for the Holocaust.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph-border paragraph paragraph--type--quote paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="row"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Protocols was shown to be a forgery, but that did not stop it from becoming part of the Nazis’ justification for the Holocaust</p><p> </p></div></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><em>Protocols</em> still circulates in many countries today, and underpins many contemporary conspiracy theories directed against “elites”, “globalists” and “financiers” – often code words for Jews. Research has demonstrated that parts of the text were adapted from an obscure nineteenth-century German novel – Biarritz, published in 1868 by the anti-Semitic German writer, Hermann Goedsche – while other elements were taken from <em>Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu (The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu), </em>a satirical French pamphlet published by Maurice Joly in 1864, attacking the regime of Napoleon III. Plagiarized from fiction, Protocols presents a fictional conspiracy, which in turn has – with tragic consequences – come to be taken as fact.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="evil-schemes-and-secret-societies" class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-title field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>Evil schemes and secret societies</h2></div><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>For readers, fictional texts – including forgeries like <em>Protocols</em> – have the advantage over the modes (such as the exposé, the pamphlet, the documentary) in which conspiracy theories more often appear, because they can dramatize the supposed moments of conspiring in smoke-filled rooms. Although literature had long dabbled in conspiracies and secret societies, it was not until the nineteenth century that they became a central element of the drama.</p><p>The genres of the Gothic and the melodrama, for example, regularly feature lurid tales of villains secretly manipulating their innocent victims in evil schemes. The nineteenth century in Germany saw the emergence of the <em>Geheimbundroman</em> or secret society novel, while British writers were both fascinated and revulsed by the spectre of Masonic, Italian and Irish secret societies plotting against the government.</p><p>But it was with the detective story and the thriller that conspiracy fiction really came into its own around the turn of the twentieth century. These genres were anchored in the suspicion that there is a deeper reality hidden beneath the confusion of surface detail.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="identifying-with-a-heroic-figure" class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-title field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>Identifying with a heroic figure</h2></div><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>However, conspiracy fiction does not merely show the inner workings of the conspiracy in a way that eludes the paper trails of more supposedly factual versions. It also often encourages readers to identify with an individual character – usually a lone, heroic detective figure. In detective fiction and conspiracy thrillers there are actually two stories, pulling in opposite directions. One narrative is the detective’s journey of discovery, the page-turning story that rushes ever more rapidly forward – from the initial realization that everything he or she believed is a lie, to a final exposure of the plot and the hoped-for restoration of order in the present.</p><p>At the same time, however, there is the story of the original crime, which happens before the book starts. Often in conspiracy fiction, the more the detective discovers about the conspiracy, the more the imagined plot becomes vast. The tension between these two narrative structures helps explain why the path to the final discovery in conspiracy fiction is endlessly delayed, as we discover repeatedly that what we thought to be the truth was merely a false clue planted by the evil conspirators. Much of the pleasure of conspiracy fiction comes from wanting to get to the grand revelation, but also wanting to never quite reach that destination.</p><p>The literary focus on suspicion and interpretation has its roots in nineteenth-century writers such as Edgar Allen Poe and Henry James, and became a mainstay of modernist writing in the twentieth century. However, conspiracy fiction reached its full flowering in post-Second World War American literature. The theme of conspiracy is a central concern in some of the most prominent post-war American writers, including William S. Burroughs, Don DeLillo, Joseph Heller, Ken Kesey and Thomas Pynchon.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="“creative-paranoia”" class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-title field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>“Creative paranoia”</h2></div><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>They repeatedly create scenarios in which the hero (nearly always a white man) feels that his liberty, identity and agency – and even his body – are in danger of being controlled by vast, shadowy forces. In order to understand What Is Really Going On, these fictions wilfully embrace a form of what Pynchon has called “creative paranoia”. They present conspiracy theory as a way of understanding impersonal systems in the age of state power, corporate capitalism and mass media. The conspiracy is no longer an easily detected foreign plot to infiltrate the nation, but a more ambiguous and pervasive threat from within.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph-border paragraph paragraph--type--quote paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="row"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>The conspiracy is no longer a foreign plot to infiltrate the nation, but a more ambiguous and pervasive threat from within</p><p> </p></div></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Given this situation, it is not surprising that much of this fiction focuses self-consciously on the question of how we know what we think we know. There has been a shift from conspiracy narratives that dramatize plots, to conspiracy theory narratives that ponder the possible existence of such plots. These more recent fictions often have ambiguous, inconclusive endings, as the detective surrogate is never entirely sure if the clues have merely been red herrings.</p><p>If modernist writing invites a form of paranoid reading – because it encourages readers to discover hidden significances and concealed allusions – then postmodernist writing demands what has been called “meta-paranoia”, a self-reflexive focus on questions of radical suspicion. As conspiracy fictions by sci-fi writers such as Philip K. Dick or films such as <em>The Matrix</em> suggest, what we assume to be reality might itself be a deceptive construct designed by an evil conspiracy. Trust no one, as <em>The X-Files</em> television drama series puts it.</p><p>The focus of postmodern conspiracy literature on the uncertainty of knowledge is also in keeping with the dominant mode of literary and cultural criticism in recent decades – fuelled by what the French literary critic Paul Ricoeur called the “hermeneutic of suspicion”. The tradition of critique begins with Marx, Nietzsche and Freud, who sought to reveal the hidden economic, moral, and psychological forces that govern human behaviour and the unfolding of history.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="nothing-is-as-it-seems" class="paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-title field--type-string field--label-hidden field__item"><h2>Nothing is as it seems</h2></div><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>This mode of interpretation starts from the assumption that there is a deeper reality that lies beneath deceptive surface appearances, and it is the task of the critic to detect it. In a similar fashion, conspiracy theories start from the assumption that nothing is as it seems, nothing happens by accident, and everything is connected. Conspiracy theories often involve dangerous delusions, and the literature of conspiracy has at times contributed to those harms.</p><p>But at its best, conspiracy fiction creatively explores the blurred boundary between justified interpretation and paranoid over-interpretation. It forces readers to think about the nature of free will, especially in an increasingly complex global economy – leaving us to make an impossible choice between a world of pure randomness in which nothing makes sense, and a world of total conspiracy in which everything has been planned in advance.</p><p>By placing the reader in the position of the detective, the literature of conspiracy can help us understand the seductive attractions of conspiracy thinking, while also providing a thoughtful reflection on the problems of conspiracy as a way of making sense of the world.</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="bg-bluelight boxed paragraph paragraph--type--rich-text paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="rich-text clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-text field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Peter Knight </strong></p><p>Professor of American Studies at the University of Manchester, United Kingdom, and visiting professor at Leiden University in the Netherlands. He is the author of <em>Conspiracy Culture</em> (2000) and<em> The Kennedy Assassination</em> (2007), and co-editor, with Michael Butter, of<em> the Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories</em> (2020).</p></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div class="paragraph-border paragraph paragraph--type--quick-link paragraph--view-mode--default"><div class="field field--name-field-description field--type-string-long field--label-hidden field__item">Read also</div><div class="field field--name-field-links field--type-link field--label-hidden field__items"><div class="field__item"><a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000088084"><div class="link-wrapper"><span class="arrow-primary"/><span class="link-title">Coming to terms with time, by Paul Ricoeur, 1991</span></div></a></div></div></div></div><div class="field__item"><div id="the-20s-really-the-best-age-to-be" class="paragraph-simple paragraph paragraph--type--document paragraph--view-mode--default"><div 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